Egyptian hieroglyphics, pictures of which are given below, are one of the writing systems used by almost 3.5 thousand years ago.In Egypt, it was used at the turn of the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.e.This system combines elements of phonetic, syllabic and ideographic styles.Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs were picturesque images, complemented by phonetic symbols.As a rule, they were carved in stone.However, on papyrus, and on wooden sarcophagi it can also be found Egyptian hieroglyphics.Pictures that were used to mark, were similar to the items that they are designated.This greatly facilitates the understanding of the written material.The article goes on to tell that meant one or another character.
mystery of signs
History of the system goes deep into the past.Over a very long period, one of the oldest written monuments of Egypt was the Narmer Palette.It was believed that there were depicted the earliest signs.However, German archaeologists in 1998 discovered during the excavation of three hundred clay tablets.They were depicted protoieroglify.The signs date back to 33 th century BC.e.It is believed that the very first sentence is inscribed on the seal of the Second Dynasty pharaoh's tomb at Abydos Sept Peribsena.It should be noted that the original characters were used as images of objects and living beings.But this system was quite complicated, as certain artistic skills required.In this regard, after some time the image has been simplified to the required contour.Thus there was a hieratic writing.This system is used mainly Priests.They made the inscriptions on the tombs and temples.Demotic (folk) system, which appeared later, was easier.It consisted of circles, arcs, dashes.However, to recognize the original characters in this letter was problematic.
Improving signs
originally Egyptian hieroglyphs were pictorial.That is the word appeared in the form of visual images.It was further established meaning (ideographic) letter.With the help of ideograms could record some abstract concepts.So, for example, could mean an image of mountains as part of the relief and the mountain, the foreign country.The image of the sun means "day" because it shines only during the day.Subsequently, the entire system in the development of Egyptian writing ideograms played a significant role.Somewhat later, began to appear and sound marks.In this system, more attention was paid not only the meaning of words as his sonic interpretation.How many characters in Egyptian?In the New, Middle and Old Kingdom marks it was about 800. When the Greco-Roman period there were more than 6000.
Classification
systematization problem remains unsolved to this day.Wallis Budge (English scholar and Egyptologist) was one of the first scientists who cataloged the Egyptian hieroglyphs.His classification was based on the physical appearance of signs.After him, in 1927, a new list was compiled Gardiner.His "Egyptian Grammar" contains a classification of signs over exposure.But in his list of signs were divided into groups that are designated by Latin letters.Within the categories of signs were assigned serial numbers.Over time, composed Gardiner classification was considered common.The database is updated with the addition of new characters in a certain group of them.Many outdoor signs subsequently assigned values further letter after the numbers.
new codification
Simultaneously with the extension of the list drawn up on the basis of the classification of Gardiner, some researchers began to speculate about the incorrect distribution of characters in groups.In the 80 years it was released four-directory signs, divided by its value.This qualifier after a while and started to rethink.As a result, in 2007-2008 there was a grammar composed by Kurt.He adjusted the projected four Gardiner and introduced a new division in the group.This work, of course, is very informative and useful in the practice of translation.But some researchers have doubts about whether the new codification accustomed in Egyptology, since it has its own flaws and shortcomings.
modern approach to the encoding of characters
Like today carried out the translation of Egyptian hieroglyphics?In 1991, when computer technology has been well developed, it has been proposed to encode characters of different languages Unicode standard.The latest version contains major Egyptian hieroglyphs.These marks are in the range: 13000 U + - U + 1342F.Today continue to appear various new catalogs in electronic form.Decoding Egyptian hieroglyphics into Russian made using a graphical editor Hieroglyphica.It should be noted that at present, continue to appear new directories.In connection with a sufficiently large number of characters they are still unable to fully classify it.In addition, from time to time, researchers discover new Egyptian hieroglyphics and phonetic value of any new designations of existing ones.
Direction signs image
Most often wrote Egyptians horizontal lines, usually from right to left.It was rare to meet a line from left to right.In some cases, the signs are vertical.In this case, they are always read from top to bottom.Nevertheless, in spite of the pre-emptive right to left in the writings of the Egyptians, for practical reasons, in modern research literature to the mark left to right.Signs that depicted birds, animals, people have always been turned towards the beginning of the line face.The upper sign has primacy over the bottom.The Egyptians did not use separators sentences or words, ie there was no punctuation.Calligraphic signs when trying to distribute the letter without spaces and symmetrically, forming rectangles or squares.
system Inscription
Egyptian hieroglyphics can be divided into two major groups.The first is the soundtrack (sound marks), and the second - ideograms (signs meaning).Latest word used to refer to a concept.They, in turn, are divided into 2 types: determiners and logograms.Voice tags used to describe sounds.This group includes three types of signs: trehsoglasnye, dvusoglasnye and odnosoglasnye.Notably, among characters that no image of the vowel sound.Thus, this writing is a consonantal system, like Arabic or Hebrew.The Egyptians were able to read the text with all the vowels, even if they were not inscribed.Everyone knew exactly what sound between some consonants necessary to put in the pronunciation of a word.But the absence of signs of vowels is a serious problem for Egyptologists.Over a very long period (almost two millenniums past) was considered a dead language.And today, no one knows exactly how the words sounded.Through philological research failed, of course, to set an example phonetics of many words, to understand the meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphics in Russian, Latin and other languages.But such works are now very isolated science.
Phonograms
Odnosoglasnye signs were the Egyptian alphabet.Characters in this case, used to refer to one consonant.The exact names of all the characters odnosoglasnyh unknown.Their sequence developed by scientists, Egyptologists.Transliteration is performed using Latin letters.If in the Latin alphabet no corresponding letters or need a few, it is used to refer to diacritical marks.Dvusoglasnye sounds are designed for transmission of two consonants.This type of characters is quite widespread.Some of them are polyphonic (transmit multiple combinations).Trehsoglasnye signs pass, respectively, the three consonants.They are also widely distributed in writing.Generally, the latter two types are used with the addition odnosoglasnyh characters that are partially or fully reflect their sound.
Ideogrammaticheskie Egyptian hieroglyphs and their importance
logograms are symbols that depicted what they actually meant.For example, the drawing of the sun - this is the day, and the light and the sun itself, and time.For a more accurate understanding of the logo is complemented by sound familiar.Determiners are ideograms, which are intended to refer to the logogram grammatical categories.Typically, they are placed in a word completion.Determinative served to clarify the meaning of written material.However, he did not designate any words or sounds.Determiners can have both portable and immediate value.For example, the Egyptian hieroglyph for "eye" - is not only the direct authority of, but also the ability to see, to watch.A sign showing a roll of papyrus, could denote not only the book itself, or roll, but also to have more abstract, abstract concept.
Using Signs
Decorative and quite formal characters for their implementation.In particular, to use the mark, as a rule, to mark the sacred and monumental texts.In everyday life, to create a business and administrative documents, correspondence is simpler hieratic system.But it is, despite the rather frequent use, could not displace characters.They continued to use in the Persian period, and during the Greco-Roman control.But I must say that the IV century there were few people who could use and understand the system.
Research
One of the first characters are interested in the ancient writers: Diodorus, Strabo, Herodotus.A special authority in the study had signs Horapollon.All of these writers have argued strongly that all the characters are a picture of a letter.In this system, in their view, certain signs designated for whole words, but not letters or syllables.Under the influence of this thesis were a very long time, and the researchers of the 19th century.Not trying to scientifically confirm this theory, scientists have deciphered hieroglyphics, treating each of them as part of pictographs.The first who suggested the presence of phonetic symbols, was Thomas Young.But he could not find the key to understanding them.Decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics succeeded Jean-Francois Champollion.The historical merit of this researcher that he abandoned the thesis of ancient writers and chose his own path.As the basis of the study he made the assumption that the Egyptian writings do not consist of conceptual and phonetic elements.
study Rosetta stone
This archaeological find was a polished black basalt slab.She was completely covered with inscriptions was to have been made in two languages.On the stove, there were three speakers.The first two were made by the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.The third column was composed in Greek, and it is thanks to the presence of her text on the stone was read.It was an honorable address priests, directed by Ptolemy the Fifth Epiphanes on his coronation.In the Greek text on the stone was attended by the names of Cleopatra and Ptolemy.They were supposed to be in the Egyptian text.It was known that the names of the pharaohs included the cartouches, or oval frames.That's why Shampilona no difficulty to find the names of the Egyptian text - they clearly stand out from the rest of the characters.Subsequently, by comparing the text column, researchers are more convinced of the validity of the theory based on the phonetic symbols.
Some rules mark
particular importance in the art of writing had aesthetic considerations.On their basis create certain rules limiting the choice of the direction of the text.Symbols can be written as right to left, and vice versa, depending on where applied.Some characters were written so as to face to face reading.It extends this rule to many characters, but the most obvious is the limit when it was the mark of characters illustrating animals and humans.If the label located on the portal, its individual characters appealed to the middle of the door.Come in person could so easily read characters as text characters began spaced closest to him.As a result, none of the sign "showed no ignorance" and turned his back to anyone.The same principle, in fact, can be observed in a conversation between two people.
Conclusions
should be noted that, despite the apparent simplicity of writing elements of the Egyptians, their system of signs was considered quite complicated.Over time, the characters began to fade into the background, and soon they were replaced by other means of graphic expression of speech.The Romans and Greeks did not show particular interest in Egyptian hieroglyphs.With the adoption of a system of symbols of Christianity completely out of use.By 391, by order of the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius the First Great closed all pagan temples.Last hieroglyphic record dates from the year 394 (evidenced by the archaeological finds on the island. Fila).
