Genetics - the science that studies the transmission of traits from parent to offspring individuals.This discipline is also considering their properties and ability to volatility.At the same time as the media are the special structure - the genes.At present, science has accumulated enough information.It has several sections, each of which has its own objectives and objects of study.The most important sections: classical, molecular and medical genetics and genetic engineering.
Classical genetics
Classical genetics - the science of heredity.This property of all organisms pass during breeding their external and internal features of the offspring.Classical genetics is also engaged in the study of variability.It is expressed in signs of instability.These changes accumulate from generation to generation.Only through such volatility organisms can adapt to changes in their environment.
hereditary information of organisms lies in the genes.Currently, they are considered from the point of view of molecular genetics.Although these concepts emerged long before the appearance of this section.
terms "mutation", "DNA", "chromosome", "variability" became known in the course of numerous studies.Now the results of centuries of experience seem obvious, but once it started with random mating.People tend to get cows with large udoyami milk, larger pigs and sheep with thick fur.They were the first, not even scientific, experiments.However, these conditions have led to the emergence of a science as a classical genetics.Up until the 20th century was the only crossing known and available method of investigation.That the results of classical genetics is a significant achievement of modern science of biology.
Molecular Genetics
This section examines all laws that are subject to processes at the molecular level.The most important property of all living organisms - it is heredity, that is, they are capable of generations to preserve the essential features of the structure of the organism, and the structure for metabolic processes and response to exposure to various environmental factors.This is due to the fact that at the molecular level, special substances record and store all the information and then transfer it to the next generations in the fertilization process.The discovery of these substances and their subsequent study was made possible through the study of the structure of the cells at the chemical level.So it was discovered nucleic acids - the basis of the genetic material.
Opening of "hereditary molecules»
Modern genetics knows almost everything about nucleic acids, but, of course, was not always so.The first assumption is that the chemicals can somehow be linked to heredity, was made only in the 19th century.The study of this problem at the time engaged in a biochemist F. Miescher brothers Hertwig biologists.In 1928, Russian scientist Nikolai K. Koltsov, based on the results of studies suggested that all the hereditary properties of living organisms are coded and placed in a giant "hereditary molecules".However, he said that these molecules are composed of units ordered that, in fact, are the genes.It's definitely been a breakthrough.Also Koltcov determined that data "ancestral molecule" packed cells into special structures called chromosomes.Subsequently, this hypothesis was confirmed and gave impetus to the development of science in the 20th century.
development of science in the 20th century
development of genetics and further research led to a number of equally important discoveries.It was found that each chromosome in the cell contains only one large DNA molecule consisting of two strands.Her numerous segments - it is the genes.Their basic function consists in the fact that they specifically encode information about the structure of enzymes.But the realization of genetic information in certain features of the proceeds with the participation of another type of nucleic acid - RNA.It is synthesized DNA and make copies of the genes.It also carries information on the ribosome, where it is the enzymatic synthesis of proteins.The structure of DNA was found in 1953, and RNA - in the period from 1961 to 1964.
Since then, molecular genetics began to develop by leaps and bounds.These findings were the basis of studies, which resulted in the deployment patterns disclosed genetic information.This process is carried out at the molecular level in the cells.They also received a fundamentally new information about the storage of information in the genes.Over time, it has been found the occurrence of doubling of the mechanisms of DNA before cell division (replication), the process of reading the information molecule of RNA (transcription), the synthesis of protein enzymes (broadcast).They also found changes in the principles of heredity and clarify their role in the internal and external environment of the cells.
Deciphering the structure of DNA
genetics methods have evolved rapidly.The most important achievement was the transcript of the chromosomal DNA.It was found that there are only two types of chain segments.They differ from each other nucleotides.The first type of each section is original, that is, it has an inherent uniqueness.The second contains a different number of recurring sequences.They were named repeats.In 1973 it was established the fact that the unique zone always interrupted by certain genes.The segment always ends replay.This gap encodes certain enzymatic proteins, it is for him "guided" by reading the information RNA to DNA.
first discoveries in genetic engineering
new methods of genetics led to further discoveries.It was found a unique property of all living matter.This is the ability to restore the damaged areas in the DNA chain.They can result from a variety of negative impacts.The ability to repair itself has been called "the process of genetic repair."Currently, many eminent scholars have expressed enough evidence-based hope for the opportunity to "pick out" certain genes from the cell.What can it give?First of all the possibility to eliminate genetic defects.The study of such problems involved in genetic engineering.
replication process
Molecular genetics studies the processes of transmission of genetic information during reproduction.Saving immutability record encoded in the genes, it ensures accurate reproduction during cell division.The whole mechanism of this process is studied in detail.It was found that directly before fission occurs in the cell to replicate.This is the process of doubling DNA.It is accompanied by absolutely accurate copy of the original molecules of the rule of complementarity.It is known that in the DNA strands are only four types of nucleotides.It is guanine, adenine, cytosine and thymine.According to the rule of complementarity discoveries of scientists Crick and J. Watson in 1953, in the structure of the DNA double strand corresponds to thymine adenine and cytidylic nucleotide - guanine.During the replication process takes an exact copy of each strand of DNA by substituting the desired nucleotide.
Genetics - the science is relatively young.The replication process has been studied only in the 50s of the 20th century.Then the enzyme was discovered DNA polymerase.In the 70s, after years of research, it was found that the replication - the process of multi-stage.In the synthesis of DNA molecules directly involved several different kinds of DNA polymerases.
Genetics and Health
All information related to the dot reproduction of genetic information during the process of DNA replication, are widely used in modern medical practice.A thorough study of the laws peculiar as the health of the body, and in the case of pathological changes in them.For example, it is proven and confirmed by experiments that the cure of certain diseases can be achieved by influence from outside on the processes of replication of the genetic material and physical division of cells.Especially if the pathology associated with the functioning of the body's metabolic processes.For example, diseases such as rickets and violation of phosphorus metabolism, directly caused by inhibition of DNA replication.How can we change this condition from the outside?It has been synthesized and tested drugs that stimulate the processes of the oppressed.They activate DNA replication.This contributes to the normalization and rehabilitation of pathological conditions associated with the disease.However, genetic studies are not standing still.Every year, getting more and more data, helping not only to heal, and prevent possible illness.
Genetics and drugs
a lot of issues involved in health molecular genetics.Biology of some viruses and microorganisms such that their activity in the human body often leads to a failure of DNA replication.It is also already established that the cause of certain diseases is not the oppression of the process and its excessive activity.First of all, viral and bacterial infections.They are due to the fact that in the affected cells and tissues begin to rapidly multiply pathogenic microbes.Also to this pathology are cancer.
Currently, there are a number of drugs that can suppress the replication of the DNA in the cell.Most of them were synthesized by Soviet scientists.These drugs are widely used in medical practice.These include, for example, a group of anti-TB drugs.There antibiotics inhibiting replication and division of microbial cells and pathological.They help the body to quickly deal with a foreign agent, preventing them from multiplying.These drugs provide excellent therapeutic effect in most serious acute infections.Especially widely used these funds found in the treatment of tumors and neoplasms.This priority, which has chosen Russian Institute of Genetics.Every year there are new and improved drugs that prevent the development of cancer.This gives hope to tens of thousands of sick people around the world.
processes of transcription and translation
After were conducted by experienced laboratory tests on genetics and results on the role of genes and DNA as the template for the synthesis of proteins, some scientists have suggested that amino acids are assembled in more complex molecules at once, in the nucleus.But after the new data it has become clear that it is not.Amino acids are not based on portions of genes in the DNA.It was found that this complex process occurs in several stages.First, a gene removed replicas - messenger RNAs.These molecules out of the cell nucleus, and move to a special structure - ribosomes.It is in these organelles are assembled amino acids and protein synthesis.The process of obtaining copies of DNA called "transcription."A synthesis of proteins under the control of messenger RNA - "broadcast."The study of the exact mechanisms of these processes and principles to influence them - the main task of modern genetics, molecular structures.
value mechanisms of transcription and translation in medicine
In recent years it has become clear that a scrupulous examination of all the stages of transcription and translation is essential to modern health care.Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Genetics has long been confirmed that the development of virtually any disease marked intensive synthesis of toxic and harmful to a human body proteins.This process can take place under the control of genes, which are normally inactive.Or it entered the synthesis, which is responsible for penetrated into the cells and tissues of human pathogenic bacteria and viruses.Also, the formation of harmful protein can stimulate actively developing cancer tumors.That is why a thorough study of all the stages of transcription and translation at the moment is crucial.So it is possible to identify ways to combat not only dangerous infections, and with cancer.
Modern genetics - a continuous search for mechanisms of diseases and drugs to treat them.It is now possible to inhibit the translation process in the affected organs or body as a whole, thereby suppress inflammation.In principle, it is constructed and this effect most of the known antibiotics, e.g., tetracycline or streptomycin series.All of these drugs selectively inhibit cells in the translation process.
value of research of processes of genetic recombination
very important for medicine as a detailed study of the processes of genetic recombination, which is responsible for transfer and exchange of parts of chromosomes and individual genes.This is an important factor in the development of infectious diseases.Genetic recombination is the basis of penetration in human cells and in the introduction of foreign DNA, often viral material.As a result, synthesis on the ribosome is not "native" proteins body and pathogenic for him.According to this principle occurs in the cells of reproduction of whole colonies of viruses.Methods of Human Genetics focused on developing means to combat infectious diseases and to prevent the build pathogenic viruses.In addition, the accumulation of information about genetic recombination allowed to understand the principle of the exchange of genes between organisms, which led to the emergence of GMO plants and animals.
value of molecular genetics to biology and medicine
Over the last century, first in the opening classic, and then in molecular genetics had an enormous and even decisive influence on the progress of all the biological sciences.Particularly strong medicine took a step forward.The success of genetic research it possible to understand the processes of succession once inconceivable genetic traits and the development of individual to individual.It is also noteworthy how quickly this science from a purely theoretical into practical outgrown.It has become essential to modern medicine.A detailed study of molecular-genetic regularities served as the base for the understanding of the processes occurring in the body as the patient and a healthy person.It gave impetus to the development of genetics sciences such as virology, microbiology, endocrinology, pharmacology and immunology.
