sophistry in Greek literally means trick or fabrication skills.This term is called the statement is false, but not without an element of logic, whereby a cursory glance at it seems true.The question arises: sophism - what it is and how it differs from paralogisms?A difference is that sophistry based on a conscious and deliberate deception, abuse of logic.
story of the term
sophistry and paradoxes were seen in ancient times.One of the fathers of philosophy - Aristotle called this phenomenon imaginary evidence, which appear due to lack of logical analysis that leads to the subjectivity of all judgments.Convincing argument is merely a disguise for the logical error that every sophistical approval undoubtedly is.
sophistry - what is it?To answer this question we need to consider the example of the ancient breach of logic: "Hast something that is not lost.Lose their horns?So, you have horns. "There is an omission.If you modify the first sentence: "Hast everything that is not lost," then the output becomes true, but rather uninteresting.One of the first rules of the Sophists was the assertion that the present argument must be the worst as the best, and the purpose of the dispute was a victory in it, rather than the search for truth.
Sophists argued that any opinion can be legitimate, thus negating the law of contradiction, later formulated by Aristotle.This gave rise to numerous species of sophistry in different sciences.
sources sophistry
sources of sophistry can act terminology that is used during the dispute.Many words have multiple meanings (the doctor can be a doctor or researcher with a degree), due to which there is a violation of logic.Sophistries in mathematics, for example, based on the change in numbers by multiplying them and then comparing the original and the received data.Improper stress can also be a weapon sophist, because many words when you change the stress change and meaning.Building a phrase sometimes very confusing as, for example, two times two plus five.In this case, it is not clear whether there is a mean sum of two and five, multiplied by two, or the sum of the product of twos and fives.
Sophisticated sophistry
If we consider the more complex logical sophistry, it is necessary to give an example with the inclusion of the phrase parcels that still need to be proved.That is the argument itself may not be so until as long as it is not proven.Another criticism is considered a violation of the opponent's opinion, which is aimed at falsely attributed to him judgment.This error is common in everyday life, where people attribute to each other the views and motives of those who do not belong to them.
Furthermore, phrase said with some justification, be a substitute to an expression which has no such reservations.Due to the fact that the attention is not to dwell on the fact that has been overlooked, the statement seems to be quite reasonable and logically correct.The so-called female logic also applies to disruptions of reasoning, as is the construction of a chain of thoughts that are not related to each other, but a cursory examination of the connection can be found.
reasons sophistry
For psychological reasons sophistry include human intellect, his emotions and the degree of suggestibility.That is more than enough to make an intelligent man of his opponent to a standstill, so that he agreed with the proposed point of view it.Exposure to affective reactions a person can give in to his feelings and miss sophistry.Examples of such situations occur wherever there are emotional people.
The more convincing it will be a man, the greater the chance that others will not notice the error in his words.On this count, many of those who use such methods in dispute.But for a complete understanding of these causes is to analyze them in more detail, as sophistry and paradoxes in logic often go unnoticed by the untrained person.
intellectual and affective reasons
developed intelligent person has the ability to monitor not only their speech, but also every argument interlocutor, while drawing their attention to the arguments cited by the speaker.Such a person is characterized by a large amount of attention, the ability to find answers to unknown questions instead of following a studied patterns, as well as a great active vocabulary by which ideas are expressed most accurately.
volume of knowledge, too, is of great importance.Skillful use of this type of disorders as sophistries in mathematics N illiterate and evolving man.
These include a fear of the consequences, which is why people are not able to confidently express their views and bring worthy arguments.Talking about the emotional weaknesses of man, we must not forget the hope of finding any information obtained confirmation of his views on life.For the humanities may be a problem mathematical sophistry.
Determined
During the discussion of points of view is an influence not only on the mind and feelings, but also on the will.Confident and energetic people with great success will defend his point of view, even if that has been formulated in violation of logic.Especially strong this technique affects large concentrations of people exposed to the effect of the crowd did not notice sophistry.What gives the speaker?The ability to convince almost anything.Another feature of behavior, allowing to win in a dispute with the help of sophism is active.The more passive man, the more chance to convince him to their cause.
Conclusion - the effectiveness of sophistical statements depends on the characteristics of both the people involved in the conversation.At the same time the effects of all the above personality traits add up and affect the outcome of the discussion of the problem.
Examples of violations of logic
sophistry, examples of which are discussed below, are formulated for a long time, and are simple violations of logic, used only for training skills to argue, as seen inconsistencies in these phrases is easy enough.
So sophistry (examples):
Full and empty - if the two halves are equal, and the two parts of the whole are also the same.In accordance with this - when half-empty and half-full equally, then the empty equals the total.
Another example: "You know what I want to ask you?" - "No."- "And that virtue - a good quality person?" - "I know."- "It appears that you do not know what you know."
medicine that helps the patient is good, and the more good the better.That is, the drug can be taken as much as possible.
very famous sophistry says: "This dog have children, then she is the father.But since it is your dog, it means that it is your father.In addition, if you beat a dog, that thou hast smitten father.And puppies are brothers. "
logical paradox
sophistry and paradoxes - two different concepts.The paradox is called the judgment, which can prove that the statement is both false and true.This phenomenon is divided into 2 types: Aporia and antinomy.The first involves the appearance of the output, which is contrary to experience.An example is the paradox formulated by Zeno: the fleet-footed Achilles is unable to catch up with the tortoise, as it is for each subsequent step would be to move away from it at some distance, not letting him catch up with yourself, because the process of dividing the path length is infinite.
same antinomy - a paradox, suggesting the existence of two conflicting judgments that are true at the same time.The phrase "I am lying" can be both true and false, but if this is true, then the person uttering it speaks the truth and is not considered a liar, though phrase implies the opposite.There are interesting logical paradoxes and sophistry, some of which will be described below.
logical paradox "Crocodile»
have resident Egyptian crocodile grabbed the child, but, taking pity on the woman after her pleas he put forward conditions: if she can guess whether he will return to her child or not, it is, accordingly, give or not to givehim.After these words, the mother wondered and said that the child she did not give up.
On this crocodile replied the child you do not get, because when what you say is true, I can not give you a child, as if you give, your words will not be true.And if it's not true - I can not return the child by agreement.
Then the mother challenged his words, saying that he was in any case have to give her a child.Word justified by the following arguments: if the answer was true, then the contract should have alligator back taken away, but otherwise, it is also obliged to send their children, because failure would mean that the mother's words are true, and it is once again obliged to return the child.
logical paradox "missionary»
got to cannibals, missionary realized that he would soon be eaten, but he was able to choose - it will cook or roast.The missionary was to deliver a statement and if it proves to be true, then it will prepare the first method, a false lead to the second method.Said the phrase, "you fry me," the missionary thus dooms cannibals on an unsolvable situation in which they can not decide which way to cook it.Roast it can not cannibals - in this case he is right and they are required to cook a missionary.And if it is wrong - the fry, but do not work, because then the words are true traveler.
Violations of logic in mathematics
usually mathematical sophistry prove unequal equality of numbers or arithmetic expressions.One of the simplest models - a comparison of five and one.If you subtract 3 from 5, you get 2. When subtracting 3 from 1 -2 turns.With the construction of the two numbers obtained in the square we get the same result.Thus, the primary sources of these operations are, 1 = 5.
are born mathematical problem-sophistry often by converting raw numbers (for example - squaring).The result is that the results of these changes are, from which the conclusion of the equality of the source data.
Problems with broken logic
Why bar remains at rest, when it is the weight of 1 kg in weight?Indeed, in this case, it acts the force of gravity, is not contrary to Newton's first law?The next task - the thread tension.If secure flexible thread at one end and attach to the second force F, the tension in each of its section becomes equal to F. However, since it is composed of an infinite number of points, and the force applied to the body, it is equal to an infinitely large value.However, according to experience, this can be in principle.Mathematical sophisms, examples with answers and not to be found in a book authored by AGand yes.Madera.
Action and reaction.If Newton's third law is valid, what would either force was applied to the body, resistance will hold it in place, and will not move.
flat mirror reverses the left and right side of the object displayed in it, then why the top and bottom are not changed?
sophistry geometry
conclusions, having the name of the geometric sophistry, justify a wrong conclusion related to the operation of geometric figures or analysis.
typical example: a match longer than a telephone pole, and double.
longest match will be denoted as, the length of the column - b.The difference between these values - c.it turns out that b - a = c, b = a + c.If you multiply these expressions, the following: b2 - ab = ca + c2.At the same time from both sides of the extracted component of equity may deduct bc.Received the following: b2 - ab - bc = ca + c2 - bc, or b (b - a - c) = - c (b - a - c).Where b = - c, but c = b - a, so b = a - b, or a = 2b.That is a match and the truth is twice as long column.An error in these calculations is the expression (b - a - c), which is zero.Such problems are usually confused sophistry-school students or people far from mathematics.
philosophy
sophism as a philosophical trend came about in the second half of the V century BC.e.The followers of this movement were the people who identify themselves as wise men, as the term "sophist" means "wise man."The first person who had called himself, was Protagoras.He and his contemporaries who hold sophistical views, believed that all subjective.According to the ideas of the Sophists, man is the measure of all things, which means that any opinion is true, and no point of view can not be considered scientific or right.It concerned and religious beliefs.
Examples of sophistry in philosophy: woman - not a man.Assuming that the woman is the man, then the assertion is true that she is young people.But as a young man - it is not a girl, the girl - not the man.The most famous sophism, which also includes a share of humor, is as follows: the more suicides, the fewer suicides.
paradox of the court
man named Evatl took lessons from the famous sage sophistry of Protagoras.The conditions were as follows: if a student after receiving the skills to win a dispute in the trial, then pay for training, otherwise the payment will not be.The catch lies in the fact that after learning a student did not participate in any process, and thus was not obliged to pay.Protagoras has threatened to file a complaint with the court, saying that the student would pay in any case, the only question is whether this will be the verdict of the court or the student is successful and will be obliged to pay the tuition.
Evatl disagreed, arguing that if he was sentenced to pay, under the agreement with Protagoras, losing the case, he is not obliged to pay, but with the victory according to the verdict of the court, he also does not have the money to the teacher.
sophistry "verdict»
Examples of sophistry in philosophy complemented by "sentence", which states that no one person was sentenced to death, but reported one rule: the execution will not happen immediately, but within a week, the day of the execution is notwill be notified in advance.Hearing this, the condemned began to talk, trying to figure out what will happen the day a terrible event for him.According to its reasons, if the execution will not happen until the Sunday, then on Saturday he will know that it executed tomorrow - that is the rule, which he said has been lost.Excluding Sundays, was sentenced in the same way and thought about the Sabbath, because if he knows that on Sunday he would not be executed, then the condition that until Friday executions will occur Saturday, is also excluded.I thought about all this, he came to the conclusion that it can not be executed, as a rule is violated.But on Wednesday, I was surprised when the executioner came, and made his terrible thing.
Parable of the Railroad
example of this type of violation of logic, as economic sophistry, is the theory of the construction of the railway from one large city to another.A special feature of this road served as a break at a small station between two points that connect the road.This gap, in economic terms, would help small towns by bringing people money carriageways.But on the way the two big cities, there is not a town, it has gaps in the rail, to extract the maximum profit, should be plenty.This means the construction of the railway, which actually does not exist.
OBSTACLES
sophistry, examples of which are considered by Frederick Bastiat became very well known, especially the violation of the logic of "the cause of the obstruction."Primitive man had almost nothing to get something, he had to overcome many obstacles.Even a simple example of overcoming the distance indicates that the individual will be very difficult on their own to overcome all the barriers that stand in the way of any single traveler.But in modern society, solving problems to overcome the obstacles involved in such specialized class people.Moreover, these obstacles have become for them a way of earnings, ie enrichment.
Each new job created obstacles gives many people, it follows that the obstacles must be to society and every person individually enriched.So what's the conclusion is correct?Hurdle or the elimination of a blessing for mankind?
arguments in the debate
The arguments given by people in the discussion, divided into objective and incorrect.
