What is the conclusion?This is a fixed form of thinking and made the only correct conclusion.Specifics as follows: in the process of learning it is clear that the allegations prompted Obviously, not all are true, but only a certain part of them.
order to establish the full truth is usually carried out a thorough investigation: clearly define the issues to relate to each other already established truths dosobrat necessary facts to make experiments to test all occurring simultaneously speculation and bring the final result.Here it is - a conclusion.
The logic form of thinking does not look different: from the true propositions - one or more - subject to certain rules of elimination result is the following, a new proposition, which follows directly from the preceding.
structure
So what is the conclusion, and what it consists of?Because judgments (parcels), imprisonment (of new judgments) and logical connection between the judgments and conclusions.Logical rules by which a conclusion appears to indicate a logical connection.In other words, reasoning (any) consists of a simple or complex judgments that equip the mind with new knowledge.These judgments, if found true, and were able to give birth to a new, generalizing, called Yu conclusions.
judgment is obtained by processing of parcels where the methods of reasoning worked, called the conclusion (and, or imprisonment, or a logical consequence).Let's see how to contact judgment and reasoning.Formal logic sets rules that allow a true conclusion.How output inference?Examples are given in several parcels.
- Conservatory student Natalia plays the piano wonderfully.
- Elizabeth the second year participating in the competition for piano ensembles in a duet with Natalia.
- Conclusion: Elizabeth successfully studies at the conservatory.
the example, you can easily understand that such a conclusion, and what is its relationship with the sending (judgment).The main thing that parcels were true, not to get a false conclusion.Another condition: the relationship between judgments should be logically correctly aligned to gradually and accurately build a path further - from premises to conclusion.
Three groups of reasoning
division into groups is made after verification of the degree of generality of judgments.
- Deductive reasoning where thought moves from the general to the particular, from large to small.
- Inductive where the idea comes from the knowledge of one another, increasing the degree of generality.
- Inference by analogy, where the premise and conclusion have knowledge of the same degree of generality.
first group of conclusions is based on the private and on the unit if it is equated to the total.That is, in any case, one method from general to specific.Deductive reasoning is called deductio - "removal" (the general rules of the investigation is moving to a particular case).Work on the logical deduction of any judgments unions: a categorical syllogism, separation and categorical and conditional separation.All of them received a deductive way.
deduction begin to study with the most common form, and this categorical conclusion - syllogism, which in Greek means "soschityvanie."Here begins the work analyzes the arguments that are made up of judgments and concepts.
analysis simple designs
study of the complex structures of thought always begins with the most basic elements.All human reasoning in everyday life or in a professional environment - the same reasoning, even as many long chains of reasoning - each extract new knowledge from existing.
environment - nature - has given mankind a little more than animals, but on this foundation grew magnificent colossal building, where a person learns and space, and elementary particles, and high-education, and the depth of the ocean basins, and the missing languages, andancient civilizations.None of the existing knowledge there would be obtained if humanity had not been given the ability to build a conclusion.
Examples extraction output
draw conclusions from the information received - not the whole mind in full, but without that person does not live a day.The most important aspect of the human mind - the ability to understand what the reasoning and the ability to build.Even the most basic phenomena and objects require application of mind: wake up, look at the thermometer outside the window, and if it the mercury dropped to -30, dress accordingly.It would seem that we do it without thinking.However, the only information that appeared - this temperature.Hence the conclusion: it's freezing, although significantly it anything other than a thermometer has not been confirmed.Maybe we will not be cold in the summer sarafan?Where knowledge?Naturally, such a chain does not require mental effort.And also other parcels.These are the immediate conclusions.Smart people can have a maximum of information from the minimum of knowledge and anticipate the situation with all the consequences of their actions.A good example - Sherlock Holmes and his faithful Watson.Syllogisms is made up of two or more parcels and also classified based on the nature of the components of the judgment.There are simple and complex, and slozhnosokraschёnnye abbreviated syllogisms.
immediate conclusions
As shown above, the direct inference - a conclusion that can be derived from a single parcel.By conversion, treatment of opposition created by the logic of reasoning.Transformation - Change the quality of parcels without changing the number.The judgment in the bundle is reversed, and the statement (predicate) - the notion of entirely contrary conclusion.Examples:
- all the wolves - Predators (universal affirmative judgment).None of the wolves does not happen nehischnikom (universal negative judgment).
- None of the polyhedra is not flat (universal negative judgment).All non-planar polyhedra (universal affirmative judgment).
- Some mushrooms are edible (to the often judgment).Some edible mushrooms (chastnootritsatelnoe judgment).
- Partly offense is not intentional (chastnootritsatelnoe judgment).Partly unintentional offense (to the often judgment).
The appeals are reversed as subject and predicate in full subordination rule distributed terms of judgment.Title is clear (simple) and restricted.
Oppositions - immediate deduction where the subject becomes the predicate, and its place is a concept totally contrary to the original judgment.Thus, the bundle is reversed.We can consider the opposition as a result of treatment or after conversion.
Inference in logic - the same kind of immediate deduction where the findings are based on the logical square.
categorical syllogism
Deductive reasoning definitive - it is where two true judgments should be concluded. concepts are a part of the syllogism, termed.Simple categorical syllogism has three terms:
- conclusion predicate (P) - the major term;
- subject of the conclusion (S) - the minor term;
- bunch of packages P and S, the missing in detention (M) - the middle term.
forms of syllogism, which differ in the average term (M) in the premises, the figures referred to in the categorical syllogism.There are four such pieces, each with its own rules.
- figure 1: general major premise, less affirmative;
- figure 2: general major premise, less negative;
- figure 3: affirmative minor premise, private opinion;
- figure 4: Finally, there is no universal affirmative judgment.
Each figure may be several modes (these are different syllogisms of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the premises and conclusions).As a result, the figures of the syllogism has nineteen valid modes, each of which is assigned its own Latin name.
simple categorical syllogism: general rules
to the conclusion in a syllogism came true, we need to use the true premise, to honor the rule of figures and a simple categorical syllogism.Methods conclusions require compliance with the following rules:
- Avoid quadrupling of terms, there should be only three.For example, the movement (M) - forever (P);going to the University of (S) - the movement (M);the conclusion is false: going to the university forever.Medium term here upotreblёn in different ways: one - in the philosophical and the other - the everyday.
- middle term is required to be distributed in at least one of the parcels.For example, all of the fish (P) swim (M);my sister (S) swim (M);My sister - the fish.Output false.
- term conclusion is distributed only after the distribution package.For example, all the polar cities - white nights;St. Petersburg - not the Polar city;St. Petersburg is not the White Nights.The conclusion is false.The term conclusion contains more than parcels, major term extended.
There are rules for the use of the premises, which requires a form of reasoning, they, too, must be observed.
- two parcels O negative do not give.For example, the whales - not fish;pike - not whales.So what?
- When sending a negative necessarily a negative opinion.
- From two private parcels can not be concluded.
- At one private parcel necessarily private opinion.
Conditional inference
When both packages - conditional judgments obtained purely conditional syllogism.For example, if A, then B;if B, then B;If A, then B. Intuitively: if you add two numbers, the odd, the sum of the even will;chёtnaya if successful, it can be divided into two without residue;therefore, if you add two numbers odd, then we can divide the amount evenly.For this attitude of judgment there is a formula: a consequence of the investigation - a consequence of the base.
Related categorical syllogism
What is conditional categorical syllogism?Conditional judgment is the first premise and the second premise and conclusion - categorical judgments.Modus here can be either affirming or denying.When approving the mode if the second premise asserts consequence of the first, the output will only probable.When the mode of the negative, if the base is denied conditional premise, the conclusion is also obtained only probable.Such conditional inferences.
Examples:
- not know - be silent.Silent - probably do not know (if A, then B, if B is probably A).
- If it's snowing, winter came.Winter came - probably snowing.
- If sunny, trees provide shade.The trees do not provide shade - not sunny.
separating syllogism
Inference called separation syllogism if merely consists of dividing parcels, and the output is also obtained by the separation judgment.This increases the number of alternatives.
even greater importance is the separation and categorical syllogism in which one premise comes the separation judgment, and the second - just absolutely.There two modes: utverzhdayusche-negative and negating-affirming.
- patient either alive or dead (abc);the patient is alive (ab);patient died (ac).In this case, a categorical judgment denies alternative.
- offense - a misdemeanor or a crime;in this case - not a crime;It means - a misdemeanor.
Related dividing
concept of reasoning includes conditional separation forms in which one premise - that's two and a conditional judgment, and the second - the separation judgment.Otherwise it is called a lemma.Problem of Lemma - Numerous solutions.
number of alternatives to conventionally divides separating conclusions on the dilemmas and polilemmy trilemma.Number of options (disjunction - the use of "or") affirmative judgment - constructive lemma.If the disjunction of negations - Lemma destructive.If the conditional premise gives one result - a simple lemma if different investigation - Lemma complicated.This can be seen, under the scheme by building inferences.
Examples will be approximately:
- Simple constructive lemma: ab + cb + db = b;a + c + d = b.If you go to visit the son (a), make the lesson later (b);if the son goes to the movies (c), before it will make the lessons (b);if the son will stay home (d), will do his homework (b).The son goes to visit or in the movies or stay at home.The lessons he still does.
- complex design: a + b;c + d.If power is hereditary (a), the State monarchical (b);if the election authority (c), the state - Republic (d).Power inherited or elected.The state - a monarchy or a republic.
Why do we inference, judgment, concept
Inferences do not live by themselves.The experiments were not conducted blindly.They only make sense in conjunction.Plus synthesis of the theoretical analysis, which by comparison, comparisons and generalizations can draw conclusions.And bring reasoning by analogy can not only directly perceived, but that the "feel" is not possible.How can we directly perceive the processes such as the formation of stars and the evolution of life on the planet?It required such a mind game as abstract thinking.
concept
Abstract thinking has three basic forms: concepts, judgments and inferences.The concept reflects the most common, important, necessary and decisive properties.In it there are all the signs of reality, but sometimes reality is devoid of clarity.
When the concept is formed, the mind does not take much of an individual or of minor accidents in the features, it summarizes the perception and representation of an increasing number of similar homogeneous objects and assembles all of this inherent and specific.
concepts - is the result of generalization of data of an experience.The research they play a major role.The way of learning any subject is long: from the simple to the complex and superficial and deep.With the accumulation of knowledge about the specific properties and characteristics of the object appear and judgments about it.
judgment
With the deepening of knowledge is the improvement of concepts, and there are judgments about objects of the objective world.This is one of the main forms of thinking.The judgments reflect the objective relations of objects and phenomena, their inner content and all the laws of development.Any law and any provision in the objective world can be expressed in a certain judgment.A special role is played in the logic of this reasoning process.
phenomenon inference
particular act of thought, which can be derived from the new prerequisites judgment about events and things - inherent to human reasoning ability.Without this capability it would be impossible to know the world.For a long time it was impossible to see the earth from the outside, but then people could come to the conclusion that our Earth is round.Helped correct relationship of true judgments: spherical objects cast shadows in the form of a circle;Land imposes on the moon round shadow during eclipses;Earth is a sphere.Inference by analogy!
correctness of reasoning depends on two conditions: premises from which the conclusion is based must be accurate;communication packages should take into consideration the logic, which studies all the laws and judgments in the form of alignment inference.
Thus, the concept, judgment and reasoning as the main form of abstract thinking enable a person to know the objective world, to reveal the most important, the most essential aspects, laws and communication of reality.
